Based on the five elements of a quest, which character/s enter into a quest in the book Fahrenheit 451?

In Fahrenheit 451, Guy Montag is most readily identified as a quester. His journey through the stages of the quest is clear and, when he joins a band of like-minded men, the reader can see that this journey will continue. A quest involves an intellectual, moral, and/or spiritual journey, not just a physical one. Ray Bradbury makes the novel more complicated, however, by including characters who embody some aspects of the quest but do not complete it, either because they are prevented from doing so or because they voluntarily stop. These characters are Clarisse, the old woman, and Faber. In addition, the other book men whom Montag joins have previously entered their own quests and committed to following their chosen path.
As Montag grows increasingly dissatisfied with his society, he decides to make changes. When we meet him, he has already begun hiding books in his house. His commitment to pursuing and sharing the knowledge in them takes a definite turn, showing that he has identified a destination, when he reads “Dover Beach” to his wife and her friends. The old woman’s death and Beatty’s rationalization of the destructive nature of their work both help him find a reason for continuing. He faces challenges including confronting and killing Beatty and running from the Hound. Successfully eluding capture, he joins his fellow questers.
Clarisse’s quest for knowledge and sociability has her family’s support. Even taking a walk and conversing with a stranger—socially unacceptable activities—are elements of her quest. Her disappearance and apparent death represented young people’s thwarted future in the repressive society. In contrast, the old woman who burns with her books, is at the other end of the temporal spectrum. She has chosen the path of knowledge, holding onto her books and what they contain, and sees her final decision as consistent with that earlier choice.
Faber is similar to the woman in keeping books, but as he begins to share them, he embarks on a different, dangerous journey. While he cannot physically continue with Montag, his inner transformation occurs when he makes a new friend and helps him along his path.

1. The questor: Montag is the protagonist of the novel and a fireman in Bradbury's dystopian society.
2. The destination: Montag is motivated to leave his life as a fireman behind and engage in intellectual pursuits. In order for Montag to pursue knowledge, he must flee the dystopian city and travel into the wilderness, where he joins a group of traveling intellectuals.
3. A stated reason or apparent reason for the quest: Montag embarks on his quest for knowledge in order to find meaning in life. Montag is tired of his mundane, uneventful life of censoring literature by burning books. After speaking with Clarisse and Faber, Montag is motivated to find a place where he can engage in intellectual pursuits without fear of being arrested.
4. Obstacles or challenges: Montag struggles to avoid being arrested for possessing illegal novels and desperately tries to prevent Captain Beatty from brainwashing him into believing that being a fireman is a worthy occupation. In addition to fearing Captain Beatty, Montag must also avoid the Mechanical Hound, which can severely injure or kill him.
5. Understanding the real reason for the quest: Montag wishes to live in a society that preserves knowledge and does not censor literature. In addition to seeking a fulfilling life, Montag wishes to rebuild a literate, tolerant society that values knowledge, education, and literature.

The five elements of a quest are the following:
A quester: In Fahrenheit 451, the quester is Montag, the protagonist.
A destination: In this novel there is not so much a physical destination as a psychic one, though Montag does, in fact, set out for a physical destination near the end of the novel. Montag's "destination" after he deals with two "wake-up calls" is for a more authentic, connected life. The two events that motivate him to want to seek a better life are meeting Clarisse and Mildred's suicide attempt. His physical destination at the end of the novel is anywhere outside of the city and away from the state, which is trying to kill him.
A stated or apparent reason for the quest: Montag initially wants to plant books in firemen's houses. He also simply wants to read books.
Obstacles or challenges: Montag's quest for a more authentic, connected life meets two obstacles: Clarisse's death and Mildred's fear of any change. Montag's quest to plant books in firemen's houses meets an obstacle when Mildred betrays him and he faces arrest for owning books. His attempted escape from the city meets the obstacle of the mechanical hound trying to kill him, as well as pursuit by helicopters.
Understanding the real reason for the quest: Once Montag escapes, he realizes it is not so much books themselves that are important but preserving their knowledge in any way possible, in order to help humans rebuild from the nuclear holocaust that has descended at the end of the novel.

Guy Montag goes on a quest in Fahrenheit 451. The first element of the quest is the quester. Montag is the quester, as he is searching for something different and something that can make him happy at the beginning of the story. His life with Mildred leaves him lonely and sad, and he wants something new, away from the government-controlled television screens. When he meets Clarisse, he finds the second element of a quest--somewhere to go. He leaves the world he knows and gets to know her family, who, unlike most people in the society, walk and have discussions rather than watching television all day. He also has the third element, a reason to go on a quest, as he begins to feel alienated from his life and his work as a fireman. He also encounters the fourth element, challenges. Beatty, his fire captain, becomes suspicious of him, and then the mechanical Hound changes Montag as he tries to escape. Finally, Montag meets the fifth criterion of the quest, as he gains self-knowledge by leaving the world he knows and joining the people who have memorized books and who live far from his city. 

What are the problems of democracy ?

The main problem with democracy is that, with its focus on what the majority wants, it can often ignore what is right. Just because something happens to command majority support, it doesn't mean that it's the right thing to do. A prime example of this would be the system of racial segregation in the southern states of America in the early part of the twentieth century. This system, though morally wrong, nonetheless enjoyed the overwhelming support of the (white) voters, who endorsed it time and time again when they came to cast their ballots.
A formal system of democracy, though enshrining the principle of majority rule, doesn't take into account the way that voters can be manipulated by political parties and special interest groups into voting the way they want them to. In virtually all democratic societies, most voters are shockingly ill-informed regarding the main political issues of the day. This makes them all the more vulnerable to just the kind of blatant manipulation by political and corporate elites that is becoming more widespread in our time.

Democracy is one of the most predominant forms of government in the world. Despite its popularity, however, a democracy can cause problems because it contains a number of drawbacks.
Firstly, because a democracy acts in the interest of the majority, there is a danger that the interests of minority groups will not be heard or considered in the political process. Whether this group is an ethnic minority group, a refugee group, or some other form of minority, a democracy should strive to meet the needs of all of its residents, no matter how small the group.
Secondly, there are considerable costs associated with a democratic government. According to the Washington Post, for instance, the 2016 presidential elections cost a staggering $6.5 billion. We could argue that this money would be better spent on education, health, or housing, rather than choosing a new president. A democracy, therefore, can be problematic from a financial perspective.

What causes the speaker’s anger to grow in stanza 2?

This poem by William Blake concerns the nature of anger and resentment, and the fact that "wrath" untold is likely to take root and grow. In the first stanza, the speaker describes how, when "told" to a friend, anger swiftly dissipates. The rest of the poem, however, contrasts this situation with instances where, when angry with "a foe," we do not express what is bothering us and, instead, allow the feeling to grow.
In the second stanza, the "wrath" is imagined as a literal seed, which is watered with "fears" and "tears." This suggests that the speaker allowed his paranoia and distress about whatever was bothering him to build up into something greater than it had been before. Eventually, he came to feel almost fond, or possessive, of his secret bitterness, as suggested by the image of its being "sunned" with "smiles" and "nurtured" with "wiles," or cunning. The speaker has reached a point where he will go to great lengths to prevent others from destroying or minimizing his bitterness.

In person-centered counseling, what are the advantages and disadvantages gained from retaining some power difference?

The goal of person-centered therapy is to empower the client to make changes in his or her life. The therapist does what he or she can to reduce the power differential between the therapist and the client by trying to join with the client in a therapeutic alliance. To do so, the therapist is empathic towards the client's concerns and goals and does not assume a role of superiority. The advantage of reducing the power differential is that this process enables the client to really assume control over the therapeutic process and to have the motivation necessary to effect change and achieve his or her own therapeutic goals. Therefore, if the therapist retains some of the power differential in the relationship with the client, the client might be less motivated to undertake the work of therapy. However, the advantage of retaining the power differential between the therapist and client might be that it would make the therapist more comfortable in the therapeutic situation.

What is the dramatic arc of Chinatown?

The dramatic arc of Chinatown is seen in Jake's discovery of political and personal manipulations.
Initially hired to spy on Hollis Mulwray, Jake is pulled into a complicated political and emotional labyrinth.  He believes he was hired by Mrs. Mulwray.  However, upon realizing that he had been "set up," Jake has to parse through who is legitimate and who possesses an ulterior motive. As an outsider not working with the police department or any other institutional agency, he fights to maintain his professional and financial autonomy.  The film's arc develops as he tries to sort out the complicated relationship between the Mulwrays, Noah Cross, the California water supply, and the desire for wealth and power.  The dramatic arc of the film takes him through corrupt members of the water and police departments, the power of the wealthy, and the disenfranchisement of the poor.
The film's arc develops as Jake gains more insight into this maze. As Jake discovers the elements that govern this world, so do we.  He discovers the conspiracy regarding the public control of water and its wrestling of ownership of land from farmers to wealthy real estate magnates. Jake also discovers the tangled emotional world of Evelyn Mulwray.  He struggles to understand the relationship she has with her husband, her father, and her daughter/sister.  The arc of the film progresses as Jake gains more insight into all of these political and emotional elements.  
It is not surprising that the film's dramatic arc corresponds with Jake's own emotional development.  From being motivated by money to the desire to know the truth, Jake progresses into wanting to do the right thing for Evelyn and Katherine.  Jake's motivation to doing right is met with the futility of good intentions in the form of overwhelming political power and personal manipulation. 

How does the narrator feel about the king in "Ozymandias"?

The narrator of Shelley's classic poem "Ozymandias" has an ironic yet somber tone as he describes the shattered, broken remains of the once mighty king's intimidating statue, which is now in pieces strewed across an empty desert. In the poem, the narrator describes what a traveler once told him about the ruins of Ozymandias's statue. All that remains of the statue are two vast legs made of stone and a "half sunk" image of a head buried in the sand. In addition to the ancient king's crumbling visage that once threatened his subjects, there is an ironic message carved on the pedestal celebrating Ozymandias's works. The narrator then employs a mocking yet melancholy tone when he refers to the statue as a "colossal Wreck" and describes the vast, boundless desert stretching over the horizon.
Although the narrator mocks the proud, arrogant king, who has nothing to show of his past achievements, the poem's irony is somber and influences the reader to contemplate their own mortality. The narrator challenges the audience to think about the ephemeral nature of political power, examine the manifestations of hubris, and reflect on the insignificance of human beings to the passage of time. Overall, one could argue that the narrator feels that Ozymandias had an inflated perception of himself, which is worthy of ridicule, but also was defenseless against the passage of time like all humans.

The narrator adopts an ironic attitude towards this mighty king for having been knocked off his pedestal--and through Ozymandias, sends a warning all tyrants. He feels a certain contempt for the bragging and egomania in Ozymandias.
The poem goes as follows: the narrator meets a traveller who has seen the statue of a once mighty ruler in the desert. Now it is just two legs standing up. The face, called the "visage," lies shattered on the ground, where the traveler see its "sneer of cold command." "Sneer" is an especially derogatory term. 
On the base of the statue, the following words appear: 

'My name is Ozymandias, king of kings: Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!'

But none of these works remain. The desert is completely empty, except for sand. The narrator is calling on "the mighty" to despair, because their delusions of grandeur will also be reduced to this. Like Ozymandias, none of them are as great as they think they are. In the end, they are empty braggarts.

What debilitating effects did WW2 have?

WWII was a great loss to the world. Trillions of dollars were lost in creating the weapons of war—these dollars could have gone towards rebuilding the consumer economies of Europe after WWI. All of the major combatants lost significant numbers of both soldiers and civilians, and it is impossible to predict what these people would have done with their lives in the future. The practice of carpet bombing led to the leveling of many major historic cities. The war led to the expansion of the Holocaust as Hitler found more Jews and Slavs in Eastern Europe to exterminate. The atomic bomb took one of the greatest sources of energy ever discovered, the atom, and turned it into a weapon of war that would shape the postwar relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union felt threatened enough to maintain a buffer system of Eastern European satellites while the United States continued its military spending for the next forty years and fought many proxy wars with the Soviet Union in Vietnam and Afghanistan.

There are two (of many) ways in which one can understand the debilitating effects of The Second World War on the world. The first of which is an appreciation of the economic and infrastructural impacts of the conflict on many nations, and the second is an understanding of how WW2 affected the fate of global politics in setting up The Cold War. For the former, there were several nations whose land, economies, and people suffered dearly by the end of the conflict, and there are others who came out of in a state of immense financial prosperity. The main examples we can point to on either side of this spectrum would be The Soviet Union and The United States.
The Soviet Union suffered greatly by the end of the war, with an estimated 23,000,000 people dying over its course, and the majority of Eastern Europe in a state of ruin. The United States on the other hand, rose from the ashes of its former depression, seeing a surge in factory production that nearly completely eliminated unemployment in the nation and elevated the US into an emerging global superpower. It is these conditions that each of these nations find themselves in that sets up the tone of the peace conferences which concluded the War.
During the peace talks at Yalta, the United States was too pre-occupied with its continued war in the Pacific and thus stood by as the Soviet Union extended its influence across Eastern Europe, establishing communist governments in nations such as Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. In addition, the Soviet Union felt like, due to the immense amount of sacrifice of Soviet lives, the nation was entitled to more demands in the negotiations, much to the chagrin of the US and Britain.
It is these uneasy tensions established as early as Yalta which began to sew the seeds for early Cold War relations between the superpowers of The Soviet Union and the United States. In addition, most of Europe's landscape was war-torn and in a deep amount of economic misery, and it is through the financial assistance of the American Marshal Plan that many western European nations were able to bounce back and recover from the war in a shorter amount of time.

http://www.yalelawjournal.org/pdf/922_gvpzasif.pdf Please write a summary of the article.

This article is about which rights are protected under the Due Process Clauses of the 5th and 14th Amendments to the Constitution. The essential question related to this debate is whether these amendments only protect "procedural rights," which refers to the process that states and the federal government follow in judicial proceedings, or whether these clauses also protect what are called "substantive rights," which are the actual rights given to individuals.
The author of this article, Williams, looks at the historical context in which each of these amendments was written. He argues that when the 5th Amendment was ratified in 1791, there was no recognition of substantive due process rights. He writes: 




"The preceding review of the historical evidence regarding the early understandings of 'due process of law' is largely supportive of the traditional view that the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment was originally understood either not to constrain the legislature at all, or, at most, to limit the legislature’s discretion in prescribing certain modes of judicial procedure" (page 454).




However, by 1868, when the 14th Amendment was ratified, there was a form of substantive due process rights recognized by courts in at least 20 out of the then 37 states and by the Supreme Court. The author writes that in the period from 1791 to 1868:




"Due process concepts evolved dramatically through judicial elaboration of due process and similar provisions in state constitutions, and through invocations of substantive due process arguments by both proslavery and abolitionist forces in connection with debates concerning the expansion of slavery in the federal territories" (page 416).




That is, by the time the 14th Amendment was ratified, many state constitutions recognized a form of substantive due process rights.
However, the judicial system has often assumed that the due process rights in both amendments are the same. Instead, the author argues for what he calls the "divergent meanings model" of the Due Process Clauses of the 5th and 14th Amendments, meaning that the original meanings of the clauses in both amendments were not the same. 

From your experience, how does learning connect with performance? Speak to performance at various levels (individual, work process and organization).

Learning and performance are interconnected processes that must both be present for the other to take place. Without the knowledge and skills necessary to complete a task, the ability to perform it is severely limited or even nonexistent. Individually, we must learn the information needed to perform a task in order to be able to do it. Someone had to tell you how to ride a bike before you were able to do it. However, performance is also vital part of the learning process. You may know how to ride a bike in theory, but performing the task is part of the learning process. No one can read about riding a bike, watch a tutorial, and be able to immediately do it.
In the workforce, knowledge is either required before hiring or taught after the hire. A degree is required in teaching, but the first three years are spent attending required trainings and meetings. During this beginning period, performance is not expected to be at the level of an experienced teacher, but beginners are expected to reach that level by the end of their third year. Most jobs incorporate some type of training to enhance performance of tasks. Learning is a lifelong process designed to increase our ability to perform tasks and jobs, but we must perform them in order to truly learn the skill.

Why is the church bombed?

The Help is set in the early 1960s against the backdrop of the civil rights struggle. The struggle was long and hard, inevitably so, given that it sought to challenge white supremacy in the South and its institutional expression in desegregation and the notorious Jim Crow laws. Birmingham, Alabama was the spiritual and organizational epicenter of the Civil Rights movement, whose leading light was the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr.
One of the civil rights leaders' main meeting places in Birmingham was the 16th Street Baptist Church. On 15th September 1963, a bomb exploded before the Sunday morning service, killing four young African-American girls and injuring many more. Those responsible for the outrage were white supremacists who saw the Civil Rights movement as a threat to the system they had sworn to uphold. They were members of the racist Ku Klux Klan whose Birmingham chapter had a particularly brutal reputation. It wasn't until many years after the bombing that the perpetrators were finally brought to justice.
https://www.history.com/topics/1960s/birmingham-church-bombing

How is the Avox girl punished?

The Avox girl, whose name is Lavinia, is first encountered by Katniss when she's out hunting with Gale in the off-limits wild forest outside District 12. Lavinia is with a boy, and they seem to be escaping from the Capitol. Soon a gigantic Capitol hovercraft descends, firing a spear at the boy, which kills him instantly. Lavinia, on the other hand, is scooped up and taken away.
As punishment for her unspecified transgression, the girl has her tongue cut out. This turns her into an Avox, someone punished for rebelling against the state. Lavinia, like all Avoxes, is little better than a slave, forced to work in a positions of menial subservience. Her punishment is hugely symbolic, because now that she has no tongue, she cannot speak. Both literally and figuratively speaking, she has no voice in this society.

What role does the cigarette play in the short story "Contents of the Dead Man's Pocket"?

In Jack Finney’s short story “Contents of a Dead Man’s Pocket,” the burning cigarette marks the passage of time. 
As Tom Benecke’s wife prepares to go out to the movies, he opens the window because he is feeling hot and a bit guilty about not accompanying her. The other notable action he takes is to light a cigarette, which he places in an ash tray on his desk. This action becomes significant as the plot progresses.
After the paper flies out the window and lands on the ledge, Tom’s adventures begin. The rising action describes the precision of his movements on the ledge, his fear, his attempts to garner attention, and ultimately, his ability to return to the apartment window. To both Tom and the reader, it seems he is on the ledge for a long time, but the sight of the burning cigarette changes that. When Tom returns to the window, a trail of smoke catches his eye. The cigarette is still burning in the ash tray. This indicates that Tom was on the ledge for less than the length of time it takes for a cigarette to burn. In those few minutes, Tom undergoes a life-changing experience.

A movement from his desk caught his eye and he saw that it was a thin curl of blue smoke; his cigarette, the ash long, was still burning in the ash tray where he'd left it—this was past all belief—only a few minutes before.

How is "One Art" aligned with the biographical critical lens?

"One Art" is a meditation on loss.  The poem's opening stanza is a single sentence: 

The art of losing isn’t hard to master;
so many things seem filled with the intent
to be lost that their loss is no disaster.

And in that single sentence, the narrator observes that loss is an inevitability of life and that one "masters" it simply by experiencing it again and again.  The biographical critical lens assumes that Bishop is writing about her own life when she describes a series of losses in the poem.
Bishop's significant losses began early in her life. Her father died when she was less than a year old, and her mother was committed to a mental hospital when Bishop was just five. She moved around as a result, living in both Canada and the US as a child.  Her travels continued as she attended school in Massachusetts and college in upstate New York.  After college she lived in California, Florida, Europe and North Africa, as well as Brazil, with her lover Lota de Macedo Soares, an architect. Leaving behind people and homes in all those cities and countries likely aligns with the poem's expressed feeling of 

...my last, or
next-to-last, of three loved houses went.
The art of losing isn’t hard to master.
I lost two cities, lovely ones. And, vaster,
some realms I owned, two rivers, a continent.

The poem's most poignant expression, when the speaker laments the loss of "you" in line sixteen in the poem's final stanza, likely refers to Lota, who took her own life in 1967.  
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/elizabeth-bishop

Has the nature of war changed fundamentally in the post–Cold War era? Why or why not?

There have certainly been fundamental changes in the ways in which nation-states, particularly powerful nation-states, wage war in the post–Cold War era. When the United States entered the Gulf War in 1990, it marked the beginning of a change in the way in which the US waged war. In its invasion of Iraq, rather than focusing on ground troops, the United States engaged in the largest aerial bombing campaign in history. This war marked the shift away from ground troops as a main method of attack and toward aerial bombings, drone strikes, and other advanced technology that requires less direct involvement of on-the-ground soldiers.
The Gulf War was also nicknamed the "Video Game War" because of the daily broadcasting of war imagery by US media stations which had live reporting from on-the-ground journalists. The emergence of this kind of war reporting marked a significant shift in how the public viewed war. The public became more desensitized to the scenes of destruction and death, which also became a focus of discussion during the post-2003 Iraq and Afghanistan wars. With desensitization, fewer ground troops, and more advanced and remotely controlled military technology, war has indeed begun to mimic video games.
For superpower countries, wars don't have nearly the same substantial effect on the domestic economy or the daily lives of the public as wars fought prior to the end of the Cold War. Instead, one could argue that the United States is in a constant mode of warfare, in which it frames a narrative of securing democracy around the world through deciding to define an organization or group of people as "terrorists" and then invading a country to "liberate" the population.

To answer this question, we must first arrive at an acceptable understanding of what “fundamental change” means in terms of waging war. Fundamental change can come about in one of the following ways:

Change in the means by which parties prosecute wars against each other. This can come about, for example, through technological advancements that change the economic and political calculus by which military and political decision agents evaluate the potential costs and benefits of committing resources to war.

Change in the identities of parties engaged in warfare. The traditional field of war in the pre–Cold War era was between nation-states or alliances of nation-states. The Cold War era witnessed the rise of a category called proxy nations—third parties allied with one or the other superpower. In the post–Cold War era (i.e., since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991), the role of other actors has become increasingly prominent. These include, for example, groups united by extreme religious and/or ethnic identity conducting war by means of terrorism.

Change in the motivations for waging or not waging war. Arguably the biggest motivating factor during the Cold War era was nuclear deterrence, which raised the potential cost of waging war (against nuclear-equipped enemies) beyond acceptable limits (although there were sufficient examples of near-misses during this period as well). The nuclear deterrent remains potent in the post–Cold War era. Another motivational change comes about in the form of “war by other means.” The post–Cold War world is an economically interlinked one where the field of battle may well take the form of trade and monetary policies more than that of conventional warfare.
By this definition of fundamental change, one can reasonably defend either side of the question, but perhaps a stronger case can be made that the post–Cold War period has witnessed a fundamental change in the nature of war. For example, the US has technically been “at war” for a large part of the entire post–Cold War period, including the longest wartime commitment on record (in Afghanistan). Yet being “at war” in 2018 implies a different level of national commitment than it did in 1917 or 1941. Much of this has to do with technological advancement; war can be waged precisely against a configuration of multiple adversaries via smart weaponry that reduces the commitment of human lives. This fundamentally changes the range of choices—the motivations—policymakers have at their disposal in making military commitments.
Keep in mind, though, that the fundamental changes which have taken place up to and through the post–Cold War period have not eliminated the traditional desire by nation states to expand territory and influence around the world. “War by other means,” such as economic influence, may be our default way of thinking, for example, about how the US, China, the European Union, and the former Soviet Union deal with their inter-relationships and differences. But the first decade of the twentieth century was also a period of unusually close global inter-linkages and multinational trade. It made no economic sense for the Great Powers to go to war in 1914—yet go to war they did. The fundamental changes of the postwar period do not completely preclude a possible return to more traditional modes of warfare.

Describe the major challenges the federal government faced in reconstructing the South after the Civil War during the period from 1865 to 1877.

The first challenge would have to do with the amount of refugees the war created in the South. In the countryside, lawlessness was commonplace as people were desperate for life's basic needs such as food. The Freedmen's Bureau was established to help both poor whites and former slaves get basic needs such as food, education, and healthcare. One of the best lasting legacies of the Reconstruction movement was that the South finally had a public education system that would serve the lower classes.
The next challenge concerned the former slaves. The Thirteenth Amendment freed them, but they could not vote, sue, or even own property in many areas. Many stayed on to work the plantations in sharecropper relationships with their former masters—this led to generational poverty not only for the former slaves but for the poor whites who entered into this as well. Many former slaves went North and West where they found that discrimination was a nationwide occurrence. Former slaves traveled throughout the South, taking advantage of being able to do this for the first time. Many former slaves also looked for family members who had been sold in the past. The governing whites in the South largely frowned up on this and created vagrancy laws which made it illegal for blacks to loiter or to travel without the proper paperwork. In many circumstances blacks were treated unfairly under the law and forced to work in chain gangs. Hate groups such as the Ku Klux Klan also worked to make sure that the "black codes" were being followed. While military Reconstruction helped the former slaves as Union soldiers ensured that they could vote, once this ended in in 1877, the pre-war white leadership took back over and passed laws that discriminated against black people.
The final obstacle would be the actual Reconstruction of the South. By not hanging the Southern leadership, the federal government hoped to create a conciliatory mood between the North and South. Northern investors invested in building railroads in the South, as well as building textile mills and ironworks in the region. There were also issues of ordinance close to major battlefields which had failed to explode. Harbors and rivers also had to be dredged and plantations which had been neglected during the war had to be renewed. All of this would prove to be very expensive, and the South was not rapidly restored; the region would remain poor until well into the twentieth century.

The most significant challenges the federal government faced involved dealing with the massive population of freed African Americans after the war. There was never total agreement even in the North over a host of serious issues, including the extent of political rights for black men, the possibility of land reform for freedmen, and the role of the federal government in providing services (education, for example) for African Americans. The federal government sought to address these issues in several ways, including the establishment of the Freedmen's Bureau, the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and the passage of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments that clarified, at least on paper, the legal and political status of African Americans. Complicating these issues throughout Reconstruction was the fact that many southern whites fiercely, often violently, resisted political and social equality for African Americans. The Ku Klux Klan and many other organizations waged campaigns of terror to maintain white supremacy in the South. While the federal government responded by establishing military districts in the former Confederacy and passed legislation targeting these groups, white elites eventually regained control of state governments, usually with the support of poor whites, and often by violence and voter fraud. Reconstruction ended by collapsing under the weight of these challenges, with one state after another falling into the hands of so-called "Redeemer" governments. 
https://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/reconstruction

In The Giver, what might have happened in the community during the days following Jonas’s escape?

Jonas is assigned to be the community's next Receiver of Memory, and it says in his rules that he is not allowed to apply for release. The reason behind this rule stems from an incident explained in chapter 18: the previous Receiver of Memory was named Rosemary, and she applied for release because she could not handle the pain involved in the assignment. When she was released her negative memories flooded the community, which caused the citizens a significant amount of anguish and grief. The Giver tells Jonas that if he were to fall in the river accidentally, Jonas's years worth of memories would be too much for the community to handle. Towards the end of the novel, Jonas plans to leave the community, and the Giver agrees to stay behind to help the citizens cope with the loose memories. Judging from the previous loss of Rosemary, one can assume that the people would panic and suffer once they experience Jonas's negative memories.
However, the wise Giver may also have developed a solution by advising the Council to adapt their ways of life, which would have altered the rigidity of their community based on conformity and comfort. Since the memories cannot be transferred back to the Giver, the citizens might learn from the world's ills and consider the positive memories of a free life. Over time, the loose memories may impact their community in a positive way as the citizens learn that an unpredictable life is better than the safe, restrictive alternative.

When is Harry acting heroically?

Harry Potter acts heroically at several points in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. One example is in chapter 16. In this chapter, Harry begins to realize that danger seems to be connected with the pain he feels in the scar on his forehead. He explains to Hermione,

"'I wish I knew what this means! . . . My scar keeps hurting—it's happened before, but never as often as this.' . . . 'I'm not ill . . . I think it's a warning... it means danger's coming....'"

Harry then realizes that it's extremely unusual that Hagrid was able to get a dragon's egg at the local pub. He wonders if Hagrid might have revealed any information about Fluffy, the three-headed dog that was guarding the sorcerer's stone, to the stranger who gave him the egg. After asking Hagrid for some more information, Harry and his friends find out that he revealed to this individual how to make Fluffy go to sleep. (This would allow this person to get closer to the sorcerer's stone.)
Harry, Ron, and Hermione decide they need to talk to Professor Dumbledore. However, they find out from Professor McGonagall that he was called away minutes before. She tells the kids that they can wait for him to return the next day to pass on their supposed news about the sorcerer's stone (something students at Hogwarts aren't supposed to have any knowledge about). Harry and his friends think that the stone is in far more danger than Professor McGonagall does.
While Harry and his friends determine what to do next to try to protect the stone, Snape approaches and threatens Harry:

""Be warned, Potter—any more nighttime wanderings and I will personally make sure you are expelled. Good day to you."

Students are supposed to be in their dormitories after certain hours. Even so, Harry tells his friends a bit later,

""I'm going out of here tonight and I'm going to try and get to the Stone first."

At first, Hermione and Ron are not excited about this idea, but Harry reminds them of the danger they are facing:

"Don't you understand? If Snape gets hold of the Stone, Voldemort's coming back! Haven't you heard what it was like when he was trying to take over? There won't be any Hogwarts to get expelled from! He'll flatten it, or turn it into a school for the Dark Arts! Losing points doesn't matter anymore, can't you see?"

Harry continues to explain his plan for finding the stone by himself, but his friends will not let him go alone. They realize that a hero is always stronger with his or her friends and demand to go with him to find the stone and keep it away from dark wizards.
Harry shows heroism throughout chapter 16 as he risks his ability to stay enrolled at Hogwarts, the first place he has ever had friends or happiness, to protect the wizarding community. He follows his belief that danger is imminent, even when some adults disagree with him. He is willing to go alone, even if few believe him or want to help him. However, he eventually accepts the help of his two best friends, Ron and Hermione, when they insist on joining him. In the end, it turns out that his worries were realistic, and Harry plays a significant role in protecting the sorcerer's stone.

What important realization does Bruno make about Maria in Chapter 6 of The Boy in the Striped Pajamas?

In Chapter 6, Bruno asks Maria if she likes their new home at Out-With. Maria avoids the question by asking Bruno how he feels about the new home. Bruno then expresses his displeasure and negative feelings about living at Out-With. When Maria tells Bruno that his father knows what's best for the family, Bruno says that his father is stupid. Maria is shocked and tells Bruno to never say that about his father. Maria goes on to tell Bruno about how caring and sympathetic his father has been to her. She explains to Bruno how his father took her into his home, fed her, and gave her a job. Bruno then suddenly realizes that Maria is a person with her own life and history. Bruno gains perspective and thinks about how Maria must feel leaving her friends and family behind. This startling realization makes Bruno feel a "little funny inside." Maria does not go into further detail about how she feels about Bruno's father and his decision to leave Germany but insists that Bruno keep his negative thoughts to himself.

Analyze how Margaret Atwood uses details, imagery, diction, language, and syntax to explore the way in which women are treated and controlled in the society. Explain how the issue contributes to the meaning of the work as a whole.

In one of the earliest passages of the novel, Offred describes her room and shows readers how her mind works while she is in it. She says,

A bed. Single, mattress, medium-hard, covered with a flocked white spread. Nothing takes place in the bed but sleep; or no sleep. I try not to think too much. Like other things now, thought must be rationed.

Among other things, we learn that her comfort is not of importance to community leaders: the mattress is somewhat hard and is covered with a sterile, colorless blanket (notice that she does not say comforter, which would be much more positive). Her diction is simple and conversational. Nothing is elevated, and there is no slang. Notice the atypical syntax of the first two sentences above. Neither is complete, and both are missing predicates, actions performed by the subject. Offred's language here is clipped and matter-of-fact, just as though she is cataloging objects of little concern to her. She has learned to close off her emotions, just as she tries to close off her critical mind; she has been forced into such an abject role (after all, a choice between certain death and sexual slavery is not really a legitimate choice) that to think or feel too much is dangerous. She says that "thinking can hurt your chances, and [she] intend[s] to last." Her neutral diction, varied syntax, and factual statements about the room's appearance help show us how much she tries to limit acknowledging her thoughts and feelings about her situation.
Further, certain details she includes tell us quite a bit without actually saying the words. For example, she says,

I know why there is no glass, in front of the watercolor pictures of blue irises, and why the window opens only partly and why the glass in it is shatterproof. It isn't running away they're afraid of. We wouldn't get far. It's those other escapes, the ones you can open in yourself, given a cutting edge.

We know that the situation for Offred and other women in her position is so dire, so degrading, so upsetting, and so demoralizing that many have taken their own lives rather than continue living. Women must have gotten so creative in their search for weapons with which to mortally injure themselves that now there can be no glass in the picture frames, and the window's glass must be shatterproof too. Moreover, saying that she could not get far even if she did manage to escape allows us to surmise that women in this community are watched almost constantly and that the level of surveillance in this community is of epic proportions.
Furthermore, Offred uses stark visual imagery and vivid description to show how the community has attempted to demolish her individual identity. She says,

Everything except the wings around my face is red: the color of blood, which defines us. The skirt is ankle-length, full, fathered to a flat yoke that extends over the breasts, the sleeves are full. The white wings too are prescribed issue; they are to keep us from seeing, but also from being seen.

To describe her clothing as the color of blood helps to establish a menacing and overwhelmingly threatening mood. Also, we understand that the color of blood defines her because menstruation is a symbol of her desire for fertility. She is valued for her reproductive organs and nothing else. Offred's detailed description of her shapeless, full dress helps to establish another way in which her sense of identity is to be broken down and annihilated. She is nearly invisible within the folds of cloth that hide her body and her face. Finally, the white wings that keep her from seeing the world around her and keep the world around her from seeing her further illustrates the power of surveillance. She is quite visible to others in her red garb, but her own vision is severely restricted. She is very visible to others, while most others are invisible to her. Offred can only be watched; she is never the watcher. Others cannot see her face or recognize her as an individual who once had an identity. Gilead succeeds in rendering her both highly visible and, simultaneously, anonymous.
In terms of the meaning of the work as a whole, the eventual decline and fall of the Republic of Gilead (as told in the fictional Historical Notes) shows us that a system in which people are forced into repressive gender roles never works the way it is supposed to. Individuals will always find ways to escape, subvert, rebel, and so on. Denying individuals the chance to experience the full spectrum of human emotion will only lead to dissent and a failure of the community. Offred simply cannot refuse to think and feel forever; she ends up feeling something like love for Nick. It is not a surprise that Offred would break the rules, but it might surprise us that the Commander does. As one of the likely architects of the Gileadean regime, we would imagine that he is happy with the new rules and roles. However, even he—who helped to create those rules and roles—rebels against them.

Discuss how the Irish Civil War affected Irish Nationhood (i.e., leading the periods of division).

The respective sides in the Irish Civil War had different understandings of what constituted the Irish nation. These differences emerged from a split over the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921. The treaty, negotiated with the British, partitioned the island of Ireland in two. In the north, six of Ulster's counties—those with a Protestant majority—became Northern Ireland and remained a part of the United Kingdom. The rest of the country became the Irish Free State with its capital in Dublin, Ireland's largest city. Although the Irish Free State was now an independent country, it was still required to accept King George V of England as its head of state. Ireland wouldn't become a republic until 1948.
Most Irish people supported the Anglo-Irish Treaty, albeit with reservations. Although they would've preferred all thirty-two counties of Ireland to become a unified independent state, they figured that this was probably the best deal that they were ever likely to get from the British. They were reluctantly prepared to accept a restricted view of the Irish nation, one that excluded not just Protestants in the north, but also the minority Catholic population there.
Opponents of the treaty regarded it as nothing more than a sellout. The Irish had been engaged in a brutal armed struggle against the British, and it now seemed that that bitter, destructive conflict had all been for nothing. One of the leaders of that struggle was none other than Michael Collins, who played a lead role in negotiating the Anglo-Irish Treaty with the British. Anti-treaty forces regarded him as a traitor who'd betrayed his country. As far as they were concerned, not much had really changed. The British were still interfering in Irish affairs by retaining the six counties of Northern Ireland. Those hostile to the treaty also drew attention to the plight of the Catholic minority in Northern Ireland, who were subject to widespread discrimination in relation to housing and employment.

When Asagai arrives at the apartment, how does his mood contrast with Walter's and Beneatha's?

The most obvious contrast between Asagai and not only Walter and Beneatha but the entire Younger family is that Asagai is, at least outwardly, more optimistic and positive. Because he's African-born, Asagai hasn't had the experiences of African Americans and has a different outlook on life. The description he gives Beneatha, "One for whom bread is not enough," attests not only to his insight but to his ability to see qualities in Beneatha that her own family has not noticed or does not wish to acknowledge.
Beneatha is a young woman in search of something. She understandably doesn't want her life to be consumed by the life-draining poverty and worry that has afflicted her mother and brother. Asagai, unlike her family, understands this, but his attitude, though wholly sympathetic, is partly one of good-natured amusement. Beneatha's emotionalism affects him one way and affects her brother and her sister-in-law in another. One of the most poignant moments in the play occurs when Beneatha declares, "It's man who makes miracles!" and her mother then slaps her and forces her to repeat, "In my mother's house there is still God." Beneatha realizes at this point that her family and its traditional values regarding religion and "accepting one's place" will destroy her if she does not break free. Asagai, in his seemingly untroubled worldview, offers her hope and salvation. In A Raisin in the Sun Hansberry was ahead of her time in anticipating the women's movement and linking it to the Civil Rights movement which at that time was just beginning to gain momentum and success.

How does the author use characterization to change the reader's perception of Ponyboy over the course of the novel?

In the novel, the author uses mostly indirect characterization to change our perception of Pony as the story progresses.
Indirect characterization is a way for an author to reveal a particular character's personality through his thoughts, actions, speech, facial expressions, and influence on others. In fact, the novel begins with Ponyboy's thoughts about his looks. He wishes that he looks like Paul Newman, only because the actor "looks tough." Ponyboy believes that looking tough would add to his street credibility as a Greaser. Ponyboy's insecurity regarding his looks highlights his vulnerability.
Through his thoughts, we also get to understand how Ponyboy really feels about his family. His favorite brother is Soda, whom he loves more than anyone else, even his deceased parents. Ponyboy doesn't seem to be as enthused about his oldest brother, Darry, whom he feels is too serious for his own good. Characterizing himself as a loner, Ponyboy reveals that he enjoys immersing himself in books and movies, something he feels that no one else understands. The author's revelations of Ponyboy's initial thoughts lead us to sympathize with a young teenager who must navigate the treacherous paths of adolescence with little guidance and moral support.
As the novel progresses, we learn that Ponyboy isn't exactly enthused about gang life either. He's a Greaser because it gives him some semblance of comfort to associate with boys who experience similar challenges in life. Many, if not all of Ponyboy's Greaser friends come from dysfunctional backgrounds, and some of them have had numerous run-ins with the law. Again, the author uses indirect characterization to highlight what Ponyboy thinks of the Greaser lifestyle:


I loved the country. I wanted to be out of towns and away from excitement. I only wanted to lie on my back under a tree and read a book or draw a picture, and not worry about being jumped or carrying a blade or ending up married to some scatterbrained broad with no sense. The country would be like that, I thought dreamily.

Through his thoughts, we can see that Ponyboy yearns for a better future; he just doesn't know how to go about getting it. He desperately wishes that his "golden and beautiful mother" would come back to life to show his fellow Greaser, Dally, that "there was some good in the world after all." Later, after an especially violent argument with Darry, Ponyboy runs away. He is so angry about being slapped by Darry that he fails to see the incredible stress Darry himself is under. As the oldest of the brothers, Darry must work two jobs to support all of them; he is also the only father-figure Ponyboy has in his life, despite being only a few years older than his brothers.
From Ponyboy's actions (another type of indirect characterization), we can see how his faulty judgment and immaturity sets off a chain of events that eventually ends in Johnny's death (Johnny is the fellow Greaser Ponyboy runs away with). Despite this, the author portrays Ponyboy in a compassionate light: Ponyboy may be moody and mercurial, but he is also desperately idealistic and noble. When he hears that some children may be caught in a church fire that he and Johnny may have unwittingly started, Ponyboy slams a big rock through one of the windows and climbs into the burning building.
By the time Ponyboy and Johnny get to the children, we are cheering for them. Ponyboy's thoughts as he and Johnny do what comes so naturally to them is noteworthy:


I caught one quick look at his face; it was red-marked from falling embers and sweat streaked, but he grinned at me. He wasn't scared either. That was the only time I can think of when I saw him without that defeated, suspicious look in his eyes. He looked like he was having the time of his life.


Through his thoughts, Ponyboy reveals to us the intrinsic nobility in both boys; it is a touching tribute to the boys' resilience and character. By the time the end of the novel approaches, we see Ponyboy in a completely different light than when we first began the novel. Through the author's skillful delineation of Ponyboy's thoughts, we receive a vivid perspective of Ponyboy's evolving maturity as the story progresses.
Ponyboy comes to see how much Darry really cares about him, and he comes to understand the incredible pressures Darry has faced.


Darry did care about me, maybe as much as he cared about Soda, and because he cared he was trying too hard to make something of me. When he yelled "Pony, wherehave you been all this time?" he meant "Pony, you've scared me to death. Please be careful, because I couldn't stand it if anything happened to you."

By the end of the novel, Ponyboy begins to embrace his own responsibilities and to understand how he can make a difference in the world.


I could see boys going down under street lights because they were mean and tough and hated the world, and it was too late to tell them that there was still good in it, and they wouldn't believe you if you did. It was too vast a problem to be just a personal thing. There should be some help, someone should tell them before it was too late. Someone should tell their side of the story, and maybe people would understand then and wouldn't be so quick to judge a boy by the amount of hair oil he wore. It was important to me.

His thoughts definitely inspire us to think differently about him as the novel closes. Ponyboy is no longer the rudderless and confused character he was when the novel began. The deaths of two of his fellow Greasers (Dally and Johnny) have led him to see life differently. He now understands the importance of sharing his experiences, so other boys can learn from them. Ponyboy's new outlook on life leads us to admire and to support his love for the written word.

 

 
 
http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson800/Characterization.pdf

What is stress, why is it important, and what are the levels of stress? (Linguistics)

Stress in linguistics is the emphasis that is given to a particular word or syllable. This emphasis can be lexical or syntactic. English has variations in stress that contribute to the complexity of the language.
Patterns of stress produce various effects upon the listener. They can provide emphasis upon certain words and contrasts or focus with respect to meaning. For example, the difference between the pronunciation of the phrase "the white house" and "the White House" indicate that one phrase is simply describing a house that is white in color, while the other is the residence of the President of the United States. Lexical stress involves the difference in meaning of a word. When the stress is placed upon a given syllable, a word can mean one thing, while it can means something else if the stress is placed upon a different syllable. For example, depending on the pronunciation of the noun August and the adjective august, the distinction between the two words is made to a listener. Even with words that are spelled differently, the meaning is conveyed by the stress given to them. For instance, without seeing these words, the listener can distinguish the lexical difference between insight and incite.
In English, there is what is also called variable stress. Different regional dialects, for instance, place stress upon certain syllables in words. For example, in the Deep South, the name Monroe is pronounced with the stress upon the first syllable, whereas in the Middle American dialect, the stress is on the second syllable. Stress placed upon words in sentences is called sentence stress or prosodic stress. This type of stress involves phrasal stress or contrastive stress. Phrasal stress, for instance, involves stress which extends the word stress upwards by at least two levels. Again, regional dialects are often indicated by this other type of stress. For instance, in contrast to Middle American dialect, a Southern dialect often ends a sentence on an upward tone.
http://gordon.faculty.linguistics.ucsb.edu/Gordon_2010_Stresssystems.pdf

http://pachamamatrust.org/f2/1_K/commerce/Intro/002b_Stress_KCoA.htm

How did the African-American slave narratives of the 1830s differ from the African-American slave narratives of the 1860s?

Slave narratives had existed in various forms for many years prior to the 1830s. Despite some inevitable differences between individual testimonies over time, it is possible to identify certain general themes and characteristics that distinguish them from those made and recorded after the Civil War.
In the 1830s slave narratives tended to resemble classic statements of conversion; they were primarily accounts of spiritual testimony that meticulously detailed the systematic ravaging of the soul by slavery and all its horrors. Earlier examples included the preacher George White's A Brief Account of the Life, Experiences, Travels and Gospel Labors of George White, an African; Written by Himself and Revised by a Friend.
Spiritual autobiography was a highly popular literary genre at the time. In using a conventional Anglo-American literary genre to tell their stories, African Americans attempted to induce some degree of sympathy from their white readership, especially those in a position of power and responsibility.
As well as sympathy, slave narratives inevitably aroused hostility. Slave owners, Southern politicians, and their apologists in the press accused slaves and their white amanuenses of at best exaggerating and at worst lying about life under the "peculiar institution."
In response to this, writers of slave narratives started to pay more attention to matters of proof. The greater the veracity of such stories, the harder it would be for the defenders of slavery to undermine their credibility in the court of public opinion. This necessitated a radical change in the nature of slave narratives. Increasingly, they were now seen as documents of fact rather than expressions of personal experience.
In this significant shift we can see the extent to which slave narratives reflected changes in American politics and society. Though still outwardly a deeply religious country, the United States was also imbued with the scientific spirit of the mid-19th century. The scientific mindset dictated that facts were of overriding importance, not just in relation to the natural sciences, but also to historical scholarship.
With the end of the Civil War and the passing of the 13th Amendment, it was necessary for slave narratives to have a different focus. Slavery was to be seen not just as an embodiment of repression and degradation but as a trial. African Americans had emerged after years of hard, bitter struggle, fighting for their freedom on the battlefield and proving themselves in positions of political responsibility during Reconstruction. 
The rapidity of industrial change after the war added a fresh impetus to this process. In an ever-changing economy requiring increasingly complex skills, it was essential to African Americans that they too were able to participate successfully in this new economic order. The cutthroat world of capitalist competition would provide a testing ground for African American workers, in which they too had the right to live and work as free men and women. The challenge here was not just to contradict the prevailing prejudice of white supremacy but also to take on and disprove the biological racism dominant in various scientific fields. In a country in which social Darwinism was becoming increasingly influential, it was essential for African Americans to prove that they too could survive and prosper under new economic realities.
Postbellum slave narratives contributed enormously to helping African Americans find a place for themselves in the new America. The apogee of this struggle was reached in Booker T. Washington's classic Up From Slavery of 1901, a personal success story which extolled the virtues of economic and educational progress. As well as contributing to a more confident self-image among African Americans, slave narratives such as Washington's also forced white America to take claims of racial equality more seriously.
 
 
 
https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/beyond-trafficking-and-slavery/slaves-narratives-from-past/

A uniform solid sphere of mass M and radius R is free to rotate about a horizontal axis through its center. A string is wrapped around the sphere and is attached to an object of mass m. Assume that the string does not slip on the sphere. Find the acceleration of the object and the tension in the string.

The force diagram below shows the forces acting on the sphere and the hanging object. The tension in the string is responsible for the angular acceleration of the sphere and the difference between the weight of the object and the tension is the net force acting on the hanging object. Use Newton’s second law to obtain two equations in a and T that we can solve simultaneously. The moment of inertia is that found for a sphere and will not be derived here.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/isph.html

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Newt.html

Explore the theme of isolation in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein.

Isolation is one of the most important themes of Frankenstein. Walton isolates himself from all companionship when he embarks upon his expedition to the frozen wastes of the north. Victor Frankenstein is also isolated, both emotionally and intellectually. He's separated from the ordinary run of humanity by his scientific genius; there's really no one who can understand what's going on in that over-worked super-brain of his.
He deliberately chooses to further isolate himself from his fellow man by the experiments he conducts. Frankenstein is even isolated from his fellow scientists by his creation of the Monster. And this condition looks set to continue indefinitely, for the brave new world he envisages involves his being all alone at the top. He wants to create a race of beings who will worship him like a god. And being treated like a god is guaranteed to keep you apart from the rest of humanity.
Frankenstein passes on his sense of isolation to the Monster he creates. But the Monster doesn't want to be alone; he wants Victor to make him a brand new mate. When Frankenstein develops moral qualms over the issue, the Monster threatens to make life hard for his creator. Eventually, Victor relents and takes off to the remote Orkney Islands to create the second creature. Once again, he understands the necessity of isolation; such a diabolical experiment must be conducted well away from prying eyes.
It's notable that when the Monster first confronts Victor, it's against the splendidly isolated backdrop of the Swiss Alps. This majestic mountain range provides the perfect setting for this epic encounter of two isolated souls. Both Frankenstein and his Monster are like mountains themselves, forces of nature towering over the world beneath. Yet there is a difference. The Monster, unlike his creator, has not chosen to be isolated and alone. On the contrary, as we've already seen, he wants a mate. He yearns for the kind of togetherness that Victor has enjoyed with Elizabeth but which he now rejects in pursuit of scientific glory. With Frankenstein, however, isolation has never just been a necessity, but a conscious choice; it was always part of the plan.

When Bella sees Edward in New Moon, can he also see her? Does he know what she has been doing when he reappears?

In the book New Moon, by Stephanie Meyer, Bella hallucinates when she is in danger. She purposefully acts out and participates in dangerous activities, such as riding a motorcycle, because these hallucinations allow her to "see" and "hear" Edward again. Because these visions only occur in Bella's imagination, Edward is not able to see or hear her in return.
Although he is unable to see Bella, Edward is aware of many of the dangerous things Bella has done or planned to do because of his adopted sister, Alice. Alice has visions of the future, which include Bella's adventures and dangerous stunts. Even if she chose not to share these visions with Edward, Edward can still read her mind and learn about them on his own.

According to the author of the Twilight series, Stephenie Meyer, Bella's visions of Edward appearing or speaking to her when she is in danger are actually just vivid hallucinations. In New Moon, Bella is deeply depressed as a result of Edward's disappearance and begins behaving recklessly because she believes Edward will reappear to save her. As a result, she experiences realistic delusions which Meyer states are actually her subconscious attempting to prevent her dangerous behavior. According to the author, if Edward had been physically present or psychically connected to Bella in the scene where she sees Laurent, he would have reappeared to rescue her. Meyer argues that this evidence makes it impossible to interpret the scenes with Edward's presence as anything other than Bella's imagination.
https://stepheniemeyer.com/the-books/new-moon/new-moon-faq/

What started the French and Indian War?

The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was simply the North American theater of the long outstanding conflicts between England and France that flared periodically throughout history. In this case, the North American conflict sparked what eventually became the Seven Years War, which would engulf all the European powers.
The French and Indian War stemmed from competing English and French claims to territory along the Ohio River Valley, the Appalachian Mountains region, and the area around modern-day Pittsburgh. The first battles were fought in the spring of 1754 by Virginia colonists led by George Washington, who demanded that the French vacate their settlements in the contested territory. When the French refused, Washington attacked. He won an initial skirmish but eventually had to abandon the fort he built and leave the territory after facing the main French army.
Over the next two years, the sides clashed periodically without officially declaring war against one another until the British finally did so in 1756. The Indians, feeling the squeeze from both English and French colonists, mostly sided with the French due, in part, to French leader Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal's willingness to work with the native peoples and learn their language and customs.
http://www.indians.org/articles/french-indian-war.html

https://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/french-and-indian-war-video

https://www.revolutionary-war.net/french-and-indian-war.html

4. In a plant, sulfuric acid is purchased with a concentration of 95%. The specific gravity of the 95% sulfuric acid is 1.8358. A solution of 40 % sulfuric acid is required in the digester. The required volume of 40% acid solution is 1500 liters and its specific gravity is 1.3070. . The procedure requires the complete addition of water before the acid. What is the required volume of water and acid to make the 40% solution.

Hello!
The mass conservation law will help us in this problem. Denote rho_1 the known density of 95% sulfuric acid, rho_2 the known density of 40% sulfuric acid (the given numbers are in  g/(cm^3) ), rho_w=1g/(cm^3)  the (known) density of pure water. Let the unknown volumes of 95% acid and water be V_a and V_w, and the known volume of resulting solution V_2.
Then the mass before the mixing is  V_w rho_w + V_a rho_1  and the mass after the mixing is  V_2 rho_2, and they must be equal:
V_w rho_w + V_a rho_1 =V_2 rho_2.
The mass of pure sulfuric acid also remains the same, thus
0.95 V_a rho_1 = 0.40 V_2 rho_2.
From this equation we can find the required volume of 95% acid:  V_a = 0.40/0.95 *V_2 *rho_2/rho_1.
Substitute it into the first equation and obtain
V_w rho_w +0.40/0.95 V_2 rho_2 =V_2 rho_2, or V_w = V_2rho_2/rho_w (1 - 0.40/0.95).
 
Numerically the answers are
V_a = 0.40/0.95 *1500*1.3070/1.8358 approx 450 (liters of 95% acid)
and
V_w = 1500*1.3070* (1 - 0.40/0.95) approx 1135 (liters of water).
Note that the volume is not preserved.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/history-of-atomic-structure/

How does Ralph begin to reveal signs of savagery?

Ralph is meant to be the beacon of civility in the novel. He is the first leader elected, and he establishes rules like the conch shell and meetings. He is one who values dialogue and sees the ultimate need for morality that's established among the boys if they are to live together. He is contrasted by Jack, who represents savagery and the willingness to kill and hurt—things that threaten to tear apart any society.
The first sign that Ralph is giving in to the savagery of the rest of the boys is in chapter 7 when he is drawn to participate in the mock killing of the pig, but almost hurt Robert another one of the boys. Ralph loses his mind when participating in the action, almost really hurting the other boy. The text describes it as,

"Kill the pig! Cut his throat! Kill the pig! Bash him in!”


Ralph too was fighting to get near, to get a handful of that brown, vulnerable flesh. The desire to squeeze and hurt was over-mastering.

Ralph giving in to savagery is just a sign of things to come. Ralph will descend entirely into savagery when he eventually participates in the killing of Simon, who has come down from the mountain to explain what that the beast isn’t real. Ralph, despite his allegiance to civility, is not immune to the rapture of savagery or the hold it has on the other boys.
It is ironic, the way the naval officer at the end of the book talks about the boys forgetting their civilized ways so quickly because the story makes it seem like the allure of savagery and violence is almost irresistible. Ralph and Piggy, who both represent different parts of society and order, help to kill Simon, who is probably the only character in the story that would not have descended into savagery because of his gentle nature. The truth is that both Ralph and Piggy buy into civilized ideals because that is what they are taught to value, but they do not have the inherent goodness that Simon seems to possess.

Even the normally sane and rational Ralph finds it hard to resist getting caught up in the other boys' bloodlust when they all head off for a spot of pig-hunting. This is crucial as it highlights one of the book's most important themes, that there's a fine line between civilization and barbarism. If even Ralph can descend, albeit temporarily, into outright savagery, then what hope is there for the other boys?
Unfortunately, this doesn't turn out to be an isolated episode, either, as can be seen from Ralph's—and Piggy's—participation in Simon's murder. Once they're become caught up in the intoxicating ritual of the tribal dance they revert to a more primitive mindset, bound to the other members of the group in a primal unity that transcends their numerous differences.
When all's said and done, Ralph's still a boy; an intelligent, civilized boy, but a boy all the same. This means he can never completely escape the often cruel, sadistic impulses with which most boys of his age are afflicted at some point. Add to this the difficult circumstances of life on the island, and the only surprise is that Ralph didn't degenerate into savagery much sooner.

Throughout the majority of the novel, Ralph is a proponent for civility and views the savages with contempt. After the boys agree to hunt the beast, Ralph joins the hunters as they explore the island. In Chapter 7, Ralph takes part in a hunt and becomes excited after he hits the nose of a boar with his spear. Although Ralph only injures the animal, he is extremely proud of his accomplishment. Golding writes,

"He sunned himself in their new respect and felt that hunting was good after all" (162).

When Ralph begins to reenact the hunt, Robert plays the role of the pig and all of the hunters begin poking him. Ralph gets carried away by the excitement and starts jabbing Robert using Eric's spear. As the hunters begin to chant "Kill the pig! Cut his throat! Kill the pig! Bash him in!" Ralph attempts to harm Robert (Golding 164). Golding writes,

"The desire to squeeze and hurt was over-mastering" (Golding 164).

Ralph's behavior depicts his primitive instinct to act like a savage. Later on in the novel, Ralph continues to reveal signs of savagery by beginning to forget the significance of maintaining a signal fire and participating in the murder of Simon.

Compare Anne to Katherine

As another contributor compared Henry's first two wives, I will be comparing the two wives after bride number three, Jane Seymour. The cases of Anne of Cleves and Catherine Howard illustrate just how mercurial Henry the VIII could be- kind and extremely generous on one hand, to emotional, violent, and vengeful.

Anne arguably had the best result from being married to Henry. Plucked from the small kingdom of Cleves, she came from a very religious family who was chosen for their Protestant connections. Her brother, the Duke of Cleves, ruled over Anne with a tyrannical attitude and expected Anne to embody the strict expectations to be a proper Protestant lady of means.

Interestingly, her sister might easily have been selected to be Henry's fourth bride. Henry commissioned his court painter, Hans Holbein the Younger, to paint Anne and her younger sister, Amalia. After receiving both portraits, he selected Anne to be his next consort.

Although Anne was not without intellect, she was not brought up in the same way as English ladies. She could not dance or play music nor could she speak English when she arrived to her new home. Thus, her first meeting with Henry VIII went so disastrously.

Henry, hearing his bride was staying nearby, raced in disguise to meet her, as he so often do with his prior wives. He came across Anne and greeted her with a hearty kiss on the mouth. Anne, completely confused by this large, unknown man being so intimate with her, slapped Henry and then spat right afterwards. Henry, so used to seeing himself still as the dashing, young Lothario of old, was humiliated and immediately stormed out.

There was no recovering from that catastrophe. Although Henry did go through with the marriage grudgingly, he never did consummate his marriage and was already looking for ways to escape his vows. Anne for a time was blissfully ignorant. Free from the constraints of her brother's rules, she heartily embraced English customs, abandoning her native dress and working hard to learn English.

Over time, she realized that Henry was unsatisfied with her and what a precarious position she was in. Fearful of Anne Boleyn's fate, she was amenable to the annulment settlement that Henry presented to her. Using her precontract with the Duke of Lorraine as grounds for annulment, Anne of Cleves went from Queen Consort to his "sister". Henry was kind to Anne, giving her several properties to generate income and given her precedence over all other noble women, besides any future wife of his.

Although her brother attempted to persuade Anne to leave England following the dissolution of her royal marriage, Anne had grown to love England and its people. She lived a comfortable life as an independent lady, with regular appearances at the Court and royal events. Never again was she beholden to a husband and she happily lived in her adopted country for the rest of her days.

Catherine Howard, the youngest of Henry's brides, would have done well to have learned from Anne's example. Although she came from one of the noblest families in the land, the formidable Howard clan, her childhood and early teen years passed under the extremely lax guardianship of her step-grandmother, the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk. She grew up with several other girls and from an early age, loved to flirt with the opposite sex, a quality she shared with her cousin, Anne Boleyn.

Small and pretty, Catherine had several trysts before she left for court. Her indiscretions would lead to eventual downfall. Her music teacher, Henry Mannox, fooled around with her and Catherine lost her virginity to Francis Dereham, a secretary to the Dowager Duchess. Although historical record does state for sure the nature of their relationship and future plans, Francis would later attest that he left for Ireland to acquire funds to marry her and had already been referring to her as his wife.

Although she could read and write, she was not a scholar and excelled most at dancing. She had a bright personality and loved fine things. Her biggest dream was to marry a handsome, wealthy man.

When the opportunity came for Henry to select ladies for Anne of Cleves' household, the wily Howard patriarch, the Duke of Norfolk, helped secure a spot for Catherine. Her vivacious nature immediately capture the attention of Henry, who already was displeased with his new bride. As plans materialized for Henry to become free, he turned most of his attention to Catherine, who enjoyed the luxurious gifts he gave her.

Although Catherine enjoyed the attention and wealth given to her by the King, she still harbored hopes of a young, handsome husband. Fate would not go her way. Catherine would become Henry's fifth wife. For a time, things seemed perfect, at least on the surface. Henry was infatuated with Catherine. No one had captured him like this since Anne Boleyn and he no longer felt old or ugly.

Unfortunately, Catherine's youth and impulsive nature made her a poor queen. She started an affair with one of Henry's favored companions, Thomas Culpepper. In addition, several people from her household abroad joined Catherine at court and whisperings of her inappropriate liaisons there reached the ears of Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury.

Cranmer discovered the affair and Catherine's brief spell as Queen was abruptly shattered. Henry was hurt and grief-stricken. Catherine was imprisoned for three months before being beheaded, around age 16-17 (records differ).

Coming from a proper English upbringing, Catherine might have been a great queen. Unfortunately for her, her wild, impetuous nature was not reined in and it led to her ruin. Anne of Cleves came into a situation no one expected her to survive after she so humiliated her powerful husband. However, fate had a funny sense of humor and she ended up in the most stable, enjoyable situation of any of Henry's brides. Two very different women with two very different outcomes from their time as consort to the powerful Henry VIII, Catherine Howard and Anne of Cleves both earned Henry's ire, but only one paid with it with her life.

Henry VIII had two wives named Anne and three named Katherine. I will compare Anne Boleyn, his second wife, to his first wife, Katherine of Aragon.
As the name indicates, Katherine of Aragon was Spanish, the daughter of the Isabella and Ferdinand who sponsored Christopher Columbus. Katherine was first married to Arthur, Henry's older brother and heir to the throne. When the young Arthur died, Katherine married Henry. 
After 20 years of marriage and no male heir, Henry divorced Katherine on the grounds that it had been a sin for him to marry his brother's widow. He then married Anne Boleyn. This caused a break with Rome, as the pope would not permit or recognize the divorce. Consequently, Henry established the Anglican Church, with himself as head.
By all accounts, Henry loved Katherine for many years. He also, at first, loved Anne. Neither of these first two wives bore him a son that lived past infancy. Each of these wives, however, bore one healthy daughter that lived to adulthood and became queen. Elizabeth, Henry's daughter by Anne, became queen after Mary, Katherine's daughter, died.  
Both Katherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn were disposed of by Henry when marriage to them became inconvenient. Henry divorced Katherine and beheaded Anne. He would also behead Anne's cousin, Catherine Howard, who was his fifth wife. 

College Algebra, Chapter 1, 1.6, Section 1.6, Problem 86

As dry air moves upward, it expands and cools at a rate of about $1^\circ C$ for each 100-meter rise, up to about 12km.
a.) Write a formula for the temperature at height $h$ suppose that the ground temperature is $20^\circ C$
We can use the general equation of the line to represent $h$ since the temperature is changing at a constant rate. So,
$y = mx + b$, where $ y$ is temperature $T$ and $x$ is height $h$

Since the temperature is cooling, its magnitude is negative.

$
\begin{equation}
\begin{aligned}
T &= \frac{-1^{\circ}C}{100m} (h) + b && \text{Recall that at ground } h = 0\\
\\
20 &= \frac{-1}{100} (0) + b\\
\\
b &= 20
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
$

Thus, $\displaystyle T = \frac{-1}{100}h + 20$
b.) What range of temperatures can be expected if a place takes off and reaches a maximum height of 5km?

$
\begin{equation}
\begin{aligned}
\text{If } h &= 5 \text{km} \left(\frac{1000m}{1\text{km}} \right) = 5000 m \text{ then the max temperature will be,}\\
\\
T &= \frac{-1}{100} (5000) + 20\\
\\
T &= -30 ^\circ C
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
$


Thus the range of the temperature is, $20 ^\circ C \leq T \leq - 30^\circ C$

College Algebra, Chapter 1, 1.3, Section 1.3, Problem 62

Solve $A = 2 \pi r^2 + 2 \pi rh$ for $r$.


$
\begin{equation}
\begin{aligned}

A =& 2 \pi r^2 + 2 \pi rh
&& \text{Given}
\\
\\
A =& 2 \pi (r^2 + rh)
&& \text{Factor out } 2 \pi
\\
\\
\frac{A}{2 \pi} =& r^2 + rh
&& \text{Divide both sides by } 2 \pi
\\
\\
\frac{A}{2 \pi} + \frac{h^2}{4} =& r^2 + rh + \frac{h^2}{4}
&& \text{Complete the square: add } \left( \frac{h}{2} \right)^2 = \frac{h^2}{4}
\\
\\
\frac{A}{2 \pi} + \frac{h^2}{4} =& \left( r + \frac{h}{2} \right)^2
&& \text{Perfect square}
\\
\\
\pm \sqrt{\frac{2A + h^2}{4 \pi}} =& r + \frac{h}{2}
&& \text{Take the square root and simplify by using LCD}
\\
\\
r =& \frac{-h}{2} \pm \sqrt{\frac{2A + h^2}{4 \pi}}
&& \text{Subtract } \frac{h}{2}
\\
\\
r =& \frac{-h}{2} \pm \frac{1}{2} \left( \sqrt{\frac{2A + h^2}{\pi}} \right)
&& \text{Solve for } r



\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
$

What are some books with the theme of hope? - I have chosen books like The Great Gatsby and A Thousand Splendid Suns. However, I need another title that has the theme of hope in it. - I am interested in something during World War II, and another with interesting ideas about hope!

Two very good books about hope that use World War II for their settings would be Laura Hillenbrand's Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption and The Diary of Anne Frank.
Hillenbrand's work focuses on the life of Louis Zamperini. He served in the air corps in World War II and was taken prisoner by the Japanese.  While imprisoned, he suffered some of the worst physical and mental forms of torture. He did not submit to the abuses, and remained "unbroken."  
Once Louis returns from World War II, civilian life is a struggle. The intensity of processing the horrific reality left a mark on Louis.  His story is a very powerful account of what William Faulkner would say is the human capacity to "suffer, endure, and eventually triumph." Louis comes to the realization that "divine love" saved him, and allows him to overcome anger's bitterness.  The story's theme of hope is evident in Louis's journey to emotional restoration.
The Diary of Anne Frank focuses on hope during the Holocaust.  The diary is a collection of thoughts from thirteen-year-old Anne Frank.  She and her family were forced to hide as the Nazis took over the Netherlands. Anne receives a diary as a birthday present and keeps it as a log of her time in hiding.  
Anne's voice matures over the course of the diary.  It balances the hope and despair intrinsic to the Holocaust. Anne's voice reminds us that while disgusting acts and actors can permeate our world, they will never be successful in eliminating the restorative hope in it.  This dynamic is seen in the diary's final entry:

...because when everybody starts hovering over me, I get cross, then sad, and finally end up turning my heart inside out, the bad part on the outside and the good part on the inside, and keep trying to find a way to become what I'd like to be and what I could be if ... if only there were no other people in the world.

In the midst of the Holocaust, Anne is hopeful.  She is "trying to find a way to become what [she'd] like to be and what [she] could be."  This standard of hope is something to which all of us should aspire.

What were the three most important achievements in the civil rights movement?

The answer to this question is ultimately subjective. The plight of black people before the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964 meant that they were campaigning for more than three major changes—they were campaigning to be recognized as equals by their white compatriots in every area of society.
If we look at what was achieved by the Act itself, however, we can identify several key elements which could generally be agreed were hugely significant in the movement. First of all, the Civil Rights Act meant that segregation became illegal. Previously, under the Jim Crow laws, states had been allowed to segregate schools, bathrooms, and other public places so that black and white people could not mix. This was outlawed. Secondly, it became illegal for employers to discriminate against black people—and illegal for them to discriminate on grounds of gender, nationality, or religion.
Finally, in 1965, black people triumphed over the discriminatory legal practices that hindered their ability to vote with the passage of the Voting Rights Act. Suffrage has historically been one of the key cornerstones of most movements seeking equal rights, and this represented a significant victory for African Americans.

How would you summarize "The Old Man and the Sea" by Hemingway?

The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway is a short novel that Hemingway wrote in 1951 and that was first published in 1952. The work is written in the third person, using Hemingway's characteristic simple language and syntax. The third person narrator of the story is omniscient, having access to the actions and minds of all characters in the story. The narrator is not intrusive, and does not break the illusion of the story by directly addressing readers or reflecting on the fictional nature of the story. 
The two main characters of the story are Santiago, an aging Cuban fisherman, and Manolin, a young boy who was his apprentice. Santiago has been unlucky and gone 85 days without catching a fish. On the 86th day, he sets out to sea and manages, in a heroic battle, to catch an 18-foot marlin, but sharks follow the scent of its blood and eat most of its flesh before he can get it back to the harbor, meaning that he will not be able to earn much money from it. Santiago is badly injured in this voyage. Manolin, who has had faith in Santiago despite the long run of bad luck, feels vindicated in his faith in Santiago by this record catch. 

Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Chapter 4, 4.1, Section 4.1, Problem 57

f(t)=2cos(t)+sin(2t)
differentiating,
f'(t)=-2sint+2cos(2t)
Now to find the absolute extrema of the function , that is continuous on a closed interval, we have to find the critical numbers that are in the interval and evaluate the function at the endpoints and at the critical numbers.
Now to find the critical numbers, solve for t for f'(t)=0.
-2sint+2cos(2t)=0
-2sin(t)+2(1-2sin^2(t))=0
-2sint+2-4sin^2(t)=0
-2(2sin^2(t)+sin(t)-1)=0
2sin^2(t)+sin(t)-1=0
sin(t)=(-1+-sqrt(1-(4*2*(-1))))/4
sin(t)=(-1+-3)/4
sin(t)=-1 , 1/2
sin(t)=-1=> t=3pi/2+2*pi*n
sin(t)=1/2=> t=pi/6+2n*pi , (5pi)/6+2n*pi
So , t=pi/6 in the interval (0,pi/2).
Evaluating the function at the critical point pi/6 and at the end points of the interval (o,pi/2),
f(0)=2cos0+sin0=2
f(pi/2)=2cos(pi/2)+sin(pi)=0
f(pi/6)=2cos(pi/6)+sin(pi/3)=(3sqrt(3))/2
So , the function has absolute maximum =(3sqrt(3))/2 , at t=pi/6
It has no absolute minimum, graph is attached.

Calculus of a Single Variable, Chapter 3, 3.2, Section 3.2, Problem 19

The Rolle's theorem is applicable to the given function, only if the function is continuous and differentiable over the interval, and f(a) = f(b). Since all polynomial functions are continuous and differentiable on R, hence, the given function is continuous and differentiable on interval. Now, you need to check if f(0) = f(pi/3).
f(0) = sin(3*0) = 0
f(3) = sin(3*(pi)/3) = sin pi = 0
Since all the three conditions are valid, you may apply Rolle's theorem:
f'(c)(b-a) = 0
Replacing pi/3 for b and 0 for a, yields:
f'(c)(pi/3 - 1) = 0
You need to evaluate f'(c), using chain rule:
f'(c) = (sin(3c))' = (cos 3c)*(3c)' = 3cos 3c
f'(c) = 3cos 3c
Replacing the found values in equation f'(c)(pi/3 - 1) = 0.
(3cos 3c)(pi/3 - 1) = 0 => cos 3c = 0 => 3c = pi/2 or 3c = 3pi/2
c = pi/6 or c = pi/2
Since c = pi/2 does not belong to (0,pi/3), only c = pi/6 is a valid value.
Hence, in this case, the Rolle's theorem may be applied for c = pi/6.

When did the US enter WW1?

Although President Woodrow Wilson had pledged to keep America out of the war during his presidential campaign in 1916, he quickly changed his mind and asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917. Both the House of Representatives and the Senate unanimously agreed with Wilson, and the United States promptly entered the war on April 6.
There were several reasons for Wilson's change of heart. First, Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare after promising the United States, in the "Sussex Pledge," not to attack non-combatant merchant vessels without warning. Second, the Zimmerman Telegram, intercepted by the British, indicated that Germany was aligning with Mexico in the event of American involvement in the war. Third, public opinion had been swayed by stories of the atrocities committed during Germany's invasion of Belgium. While many of the stories were simply British propaganda, they whipped up anti-German sentiment in the United States. Another (less recorded) reason for the war was economic. By 1917 American banks had loaned Britain and France $2.25 billion and risked losing that money in the event of a German victory.
American troops led by General John J. Pershing reached Europe in June 1917 but only saw limited action that year. Full participation by American troops didn't occur until the summer of 1918 at the battles of Chateau-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Saint Mihiel, all allied victories. Most historians agree that the weight of the American forces, as well as the naval blockade of the German homeland, caused Germany's ultimate defeat. 

What questions do the naysayers ask in Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s "Letter from the Birmingham Jail"?

When Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was arrested and put into jail in Birmingham, Alabama, on April 12, 1963, he received a copy of the April 13 edition of the Birmingham Post Herald, which published a public letter from eight local clergymen who criticized King, calling his demonstrations “unwise and untimely.” King responded to this letter with counter-arguments to their points:
King is accused of being an "outsider" who should not have come to Birmingham. 
It is noteworthy that Dr. King met on occasion with the Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth, who co-founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference with King. In 1963, Rev. Shuttlesworth invited King to Birmingham, saying, "If you come to Birmingham, you will not only gain prestige, but really shake the country. If you win in Birmingham, as Birmingham goes, so goes the nation." When Dr. King responded to the "naysayers," he pointed to his organizational ties with Birmingham to which he had come previously to meet with Rev. Shuttlesworth.
King adds that he "cannot sit idly by in Atlanta and not be concerned about what happens in Birmingham" because there is an interconnectedness between all people who are treated unjustly.
The clergymen urge Dr. King to wait for the appropriate time.
King responds that "injustice is here," and non-violent action is necessary. He says that whenever injustice exists, it must be confronted because historically privileged groups never willingly relinquish their power. Instead, King says privileged groups only respond if there is a stirring of people's consciences, or some other tension that demands resolution. Therefore, the demonstrations were appropriately timed.
Specifically, King alludes to the promises of certain business leaders to remove the discriminatory signs from store and restaurant windows. After a while, signs which were previously taken down reappeared. Later, the SCLC learned the mayoral election was soon to occur, so they postponed action. When it was announced that Eugene "Bull" Connor was running, "We had no alternative except to prepare for direct action." He adds, “justice too long delayed is justice denied.”
The clergymen ask Dr. King why he has chosen "direct action" and not negotiation.
In response to this question, Dr. King contends direct action is the what leads to negotiation. Unless the city leaders of Birmingham thought they needed to stop the action, they would not even consider negotiation.

The purpose of our direct action program is to create a situation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open the door to negotiation. 

As support for this argument, Dr. King alludes to the stirring of the minds of the Greek people by the great philosopher Socrates, who felt it necessary to create a tension in them to release them from their myths and half truths so they could move to "the unfettered realm of creative analysis and objective appraisal."
The clergymen ask why the SCLC did not wait to negotiate with Mr. Boutwell, the new mayor of Birmingham, before taking action.
King argues that, while Mayor Boutwell is not as radical as "Bull" Connor, he, too, is a segregationist who desires to maintain the status quo. Therefore, nothing would change unless action was taken.
Dr. King concludes, 

My friends, I must say to you that we have not made a single gain in civil rights without determined legal and nonviolent pressure. Lamentably, it is an historical fact that privileged groups seldom give up their privileges voluntarily.
https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html

How might someone consider the 1950s to be a tale of two Americas or a decade of paradox?

As Dickens writes of the French Revolution in A Tale of Two Cities:

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times ... it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.

The same could be said of the 1950s.
First, there were, metaphorically speaking, two "cities:" that of white America and that of black America. For whites, it was decade of great prosperity and peace: the Depression was over, World War II was over, the economy was strong, unions were strong, the United States was a respected superpower. Many whites saw their living standards rise as they moved from cities to suburbs and bought cars and consumer goods.
Black America, however, did not participate fully in this prosperity, especially in the South. This was still a decade of segregation: segregated beaches, bathrooms, lunch counters, and water fountains. Voting rights were denied to blacks in many Southern states. People could legally refuse to sell a home to a black person. Discrimination was open and widespread. Blacks, despite the Civil Rights movement, were still a very disadvantaged group.
While the 1950s was a season of light--the US built a sophisticated highway system and embarked on the space program--it was also a period of darkness with McCarthyism and "red scares" for a time dominating the political landscape.
It was spring of hope as people believed, perhaps as they never have since, in the power of technology to unequivocally improve human life. It was also a winter of despair as people for the first time, with the immensely powerful hydrogen bomb, faced the specter of nuclear annihilation.
Such a decade of paradox and contradiction came to a head in the decade that followed.

The 1950s were a decade of prosperity in the United States. At the same time, it was a decade of discontent. Because different people experienced the decade in such different ways, we could say the decade was a tale of two Americas.
Today in the United States, supporters of Donald Trump want to “make America great again.” Many feel the 1950s were a time when America was great. One major reason why people feel this way is because the United States' economy was growing and no other country’s economy was nearly as strong as ours. Because of this, Americans were starting to enjoy a better standard of living and the knowledge that no other country's citizens lived better than they did. The problem, however, is that the people enjoying this prosperity were mainly white Americans (who also made up a higher percentage of the population than they do now). America was great for many of them, but less so for some other groups.
The two main groups who would have felt America was not great were minorities (mainly African Americans) and women who wanted more from life than to remain in their traditional roles. For these people, the 1950s were not a great time. African Americans still faced legalized segregation and discrimination. Racism was an accepted aspect of American society. For women, opportunities to do anything other than homemaking or relatively menial jobs were scarce. Both groups did not feel America was a great place for them.
In this sense, the story of the United States in the 1950s is a story of two Americas. White, traditionalist America enjoyed economic prosperity. People from that group knew they dominated the society in the country that dominated the world. This was a great time for them. For others, however, the 1950s were a decade of oppression and lack of opportunity. Thus, different groups truly experienced the 1950s in the US in different ways.
https://www.ushistory.org/us/53.asp

What reasons were used by Monroe to justify this foreign policy pronouncement, and how do they relate to arguments made during the revolutionary and early republic periods?

The Monroe Doctrine established an enduring policy position of the United States by which it committed to view any attempt by European powers to negate the sovereignty of a western hemispheric state as an act of aggression.
The reasons Monroe gave for his pronouncement included, first, the idea that a distinct American culture had developed and that this culture was inextricably linked with the existing interests of the United States. The United States alone, he argued, should engage in the settlement of the remaining areas of the Americas.
Second, Monroe observed that European intervention in the Americas to negate the sovereignty of an independent state was beyond its capacity (noting specifically that "it must be obvious that she can never subdue them") and would lead only to prolonged war which would threaten the security of the United States.
The Monroe Doctrine dovetailed with a sentiment popular in the revolutionary and early republic periods that viewed with skepticism continuing European involvement in western hemispheric affairs. It was a natural outgrowth of Washington's farewell address in which the president observed with respect to Europe, that "she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns."
https://www.britannica.com/event/Monroe-Doctrine

https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=23

The Monroe Doctrine was a warning by the United States to European powers that any further attempt at establishing colonies in the Americas would be interpreted as a hostile act, with all the grave consequences that would follow. As with all major foreign policy pronouncements, it combined elements of self-interest and genuine idealism. In relation to the former, the Monroe Administration regarded the Americas as part of the United States' sphere of influence. The last thing the US government wanted was for its own backyard to become destabilized by wars between European powers. The continent of Europe had, for centuries, been riven by numerous conflicts, and no one in the United States wanted to see them exported to the New World.
At the same time, Monroe also used the language of idealism in announcing his doctrine. The United States itself had managed to overthrow the yoke of colonial oppression after years of armed struggle and bloodshed against the British. So there was a natural sympathy with other oppressed peoples throughout the world, especially with those in the Americas, who yearned for independence from the Spanish. The Monroe Doctrine acted as an inspiration to Latin American resistance movements in their continuing struggle against Spanish colonial rule. But it soon became clear to anti-colonialists that the doctrine was more a tool of national policy than a full-throated clarion call for the poor, benighted masses of Latin America to rise up against their colonial overlords.

The main reason given by Monroe for the foreign policy measure bearing his name, the Monroe Doctrine (which was actually authored by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams), is that the United States was "intimately connected" with "movements in this hemisphere." The revolutions that had occurred in South America concerned the United States because some feared that foreign powers would attempt to exploit the vacuum created by Spain's loss of power in the region. This concerned the United States, which was essentially asserting that the entire hemisphere was its sphere of influence. The second reason was one, essentially, of justice. The Monroe Doctrine observed that the United States had always taken a policy of refusing to get involved in European internal affairs (i.e., wars and other conflicts between European powers). Now the still-new nation was asserting its right to stop European intervention in its own affairs. This line of argument was also made during the early Republic by President George Washington, who proclaimed the nation's neutrality in the face of war between France and Great Britain. Washington urged Americans to continue to remain neutral in his Farewell Address a few years later, emphasizing the fact that there was literally an ocean separating American interests from those of Europe. So the ideas contained in the Monroe Doctrine were closely related to those articulated by earlier political leaders in the United States.
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=23&page=transcript