What happens when Mowat tries counting sheep to induce sleep?

When Mowat tries counting sheep to induce sleep, the results are less than satisfying. In his mind, the sheep turn into wolves. The frightening imagery makes it impossible for Mowat to go to sleep.
In chapter 5, Mowat encounters a fully grown Arctic wolf by accident. He tells us that the experience was a hair-raising one. In chapter 6, Mowat finds it a challenge to fall asleep. He maintains that the air in the cabin is stifling and that the table he is sleeping on is too hard and too short.
Out of desperation, he begins to count sheep. However, every one of the sheep eventually turns into wolves. This makes Mowat feel more wakeful than ever. Eventually, he hears some mice under the floorboards and the noise they produce makes Mowat think of wolves "snuffling at the door." This is the last straw; Mowat decides to forgo sleep. He lights the oil lantern and stays up to wait for dawn to arrive.

Tension between the American colonies and England increased during the colonial period. Write a paragraph describing some of the reasons for this growing distrust

Tensions between the mother country and the American colonies worsened in the period after 1763, which marked the end of the French-Indian War and marked a British shift away from the British policy of salutary neglect.  The colonists did not feel that Parliament represented their best interests and they felt that they should not have to pay what they considered to be an excessive amount of British taxes.  The colonists also resented the British limiting them to the area east of the Appalachian mountains with the Proclamation Line of 1763; the colonists did not feel as though the Native Americans should be rewarded for their contribution to the British war effort.  The colonists also resented the tax collectors and military presence in the colonies.
British officials did not trust the colonists either.  To them, the colonists were scofflaws who did not want to pay their fair share of taxes--after all, the colonists were direct beneficiaries of the redcoat presence in the Americas.  The colonists had long received money from smuggling and dodging navigation acts which benefited the British crown.  British citizens in London paid more in taxes than the British subjects in the Americas.  Also, Parliament claimed that it did not represent anyone directly but rather it spoke for the good of the entire realm.  
Another event that brought the issue to a head was an economic recession in America that took place after the French-Indian War.  The colonists were trying to keep as much money as possible at home, and the British needed to replenish the royal coffers after constant warfare with France.  

What kind of life did Madame Loisel want in "The Necklace" by Guy de Maupassant?

Unhappy with her current social status, Madame Loisel desires more. She feels entitled to a life beyond her means. She longs for jewels, expensive tapestries, and fine furniture. Madame Loisel does not value her possessions and feels they are unworthy. In addition to her desire for material things, she longs to be the object of others' desires and to be envied by other women.
After receiving an invitation to a ball, Madame Loisel is at first unhappy. However, she buys a new dress and borrows a necklace from a wealthy friend. Finally, she is satisfied. While at the ball, she feels for a short time what it is like to live the life she desires. Men wish to meet her and to dance with her. She finds herself "drunk by pleasure." Once the evening comes to a close, Madame Loisel again finds herself unhappy and unsatisfied.

Madame Loisel wants to lead a life of ease, comfort, and social respectability. She believes herself entitled to better things on account of what she thinks is noble ancestry. Because of this, she's profoundly dissatisfied with her present life. Although she and her husband are not badly off—they can afford a servant, after all—Mathilde wants more out of life. She wants to wear beautiful clothes, to be the toast of society; she yearns to be the center of attention, to be admired and adored by the fine ladies and gentlemen of the upper classes to which she feels such a natural connection. That's why Mathilde looks upon the forthcoming Education Ministry ball as her first step on the road to a new, exciting life.

What did Chillingworth do to Dimmesdale?

Chillingworth, or Roger Prynne, enacts psychological warfare on Arthur Dimmesdale because he feels that Dimmesdale has cuckolded him. Chillingworth is jealous of the love that Hester has for Dimmesdale and disgusted that Dimmesdale will not confess that he is Pearl's father.
His acts of psychological torture against Dimmesdale includes becoming his medical adviser, seen in chapters nine and ten. The two men move in together and spend a great deal of time in each other's company. Chillingworth works to win Dimmesdale's trust, hoping that he will unburden himself and confess his sin. They have long conversations about the sins of other men, and Chillingworth opines that men's spiritual sickness manifests physically, implying that Dimmesdale's fading health is the result of his hidden sinfulness.
Chillingworth never goes so far as to overtly accuse Dimmesdale, but he becomes adept at playing on Dimmesdale's psychological weaknesses and persistently trying to get him to admit what he has done. Since Dimmesdale is a Puritan and deeply understands their beliefs about how God punishes sinners, Chillingworth's subtle manipulations are effective. His cruelty intensifies the anxiety Dimmesdale feels about eternal punishment, to say nothing of the guilt he feels about leaving Hester and Pearl to fend for themselves in a hostile community and his hypocrisy in leading a congregation.

Roger Chillingworth tortures Arthur Dimmesdale by continually questioning the cause of his mysterious affliction and neglecting to clean Dimmesdale's self-inflicted wound on his chest.
Initially, Chillingworth suspects that Reverend Dimmesdale is Pearl's father and offers to help cure Dimmesdale of his mysterious illness. Roger Chillingworth even offers to become Dimmesdale's roommate, which allows him to investigate Dimmesdale's dark secret. He eventually discovers the self-inflicted letter "A" that Reverend Dimmesdale has carved in his chest and proceeds to psychologically torture him. Chillingworth is obsessed with vengeance and conspires to torture the sick reverend by gradually provoking his guilt.
As the novel progresses, Chillingworth develops into an absolute fiend who refuses to let Dimmesdale out of his presence. After Hester informs Dimmesdale of Chillingworth's true identity and evil intentions, he agrees to leave the village with Hester and Pearl. In addition to provoking Dimmesdale to contemplate leaving Boston with Hester, Chillingworth exacerbates Dimmesdale's illness by mentally torturing him, which eventually results in his death.

In the book Guns, Germs, and Steel, what does living on the same latitude mean and why was it important?

Jared Diamond, in the book Guns, Germs, and Steel, attempts to explain why certain groups of people developed civilization earlier than others. He traces the dissemination of food production from nine locations in the world where plant and animal domestication happened at the earliest point of history.  He surmises that food production spread on a deliberate east-west axis along the same lines of latitude.  Moving food production technologies was more difficult when crossing lines of longitude.  The spread of crop and livestock species can spread easier across the same latitude because the days are of the same lengths. Also, the seasons are the same along the same latitude.  This makes it easier to transfer planting and agricultural knowledge than when moving north and south.  
http://www.jareddiamond.org/Jared_Diamond/Guns,_Germs,_and_Steel.html

How do Boo Radley, Atticus, and Jem show cowardice?

Cowardice is a lack of bravery. Boo Radley, Atticus, and Jem all show bravery at some points in the story. At other points, they seem to lack bravery, so one could say they display cowardice.
Boo Radley hides away in his house, never going out when people can see him. Although readers don't know his motivations for his reclusive lifestyle except through the insight provided by his history and town gossip--or the children's imaginations--when Boo rescues Jem and brings him home, he does seem to display some cowardice. He stands in the corner in Jem's bedroom and doesn't come near or speak to the others in the room. When Scout leads him back to the bedroom before she leads him home, Boo stands over Jem with "an expression of timid curiosity on his face." If one equates timidity with cowardice, then Boo exhibits cowardice here.
Atticus is portrayed as a highly courageous character. Throughout most of the book, he shows bravery rather than cowardice. However, if one strains to find an example of cowardice for Atticus, one might point to the time that he obeys his sister and talks to Jem and Scout about "how you must try to behave like the little lady and gentleman that you are." Atticus obviously doesn't want to give his children this talk about "gentle breeding," yet he seems afraid to defy his sister's wishes in this case. As he speaks to the children, his "collar seemed to worry him." Scout concludes that "Aunt Alexandra had put him up to this, somehow." So although Atticus stands up bravely before a mad dog, a murderous mob, and a foul Bob Ewell who spits in his face, he displays some cowardice before his sister.
Perhaps the strongest example of Jem showing cowardice is when he refuses to admit to Atticus that he was in the Radleys' garden. He sneaks back to get his pants even though he knows Mr. Radley is watching from his porch with a gun. He fears disappointing his father more than he fears being shot at. He tells Scout, "Atticus ain't ever whipped me since I can remember. I wanta keep it that way." 
Cowardice is a strong term, and there may be better words to describe the reasons for Boo's, Atticus's, and Jem's behaviors. Each of them does display some lack of bravery, however, as depicted in these incidents.

How long did Peter the Great rule Russia?

Peter the Great ruled Russia for 42 years. He ruled from 1682 to 1696 jointly with his half-brother, Ivan V, before assuming sole responsibility from 1696 until his death from gangrene in 1725. Peter I took the leadership of Russia and westernized the country. He modernized the army and navy according to the standards of western Europe and also built a capital, St. Petersburg. He modernized the bureaucracy and even insisted that those in his courts be without the traditional Russian bear—in order to present the image of Russia as a country with a common European culture. Peter the Great added the Baltic countries to the Russian Empire and fought several wars with the Ottoman Empire. In 1709, he defeated the Swedish at the Battle of Poltava, thus making Russia a major player in eastern European politics. Peter the Great was also known for his cruelty toward his enemies and for his high taxes. Hundreds died in creating St. Petersburg.
https://www.biography.com/political-figure/peter-the-great